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Briefing Report

Japan’s Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange with the Middle East

Professor, Graduate School of Arts and Science, Tokyo University
Dr. Masayuki Yamauchi

[Culture and Life] March 3 , 2006

Today I would like to give my personal views about Japan’s diplomacy and cultural exchange with the Middle East, including the recent issue of the cartoons of Prophet Muhammad.

To begin with, I would like to point out that in the twenty-first century diplomatic contact has the character of not only classical diplomacy centered on career diplomats but also broader diplomatic exchange involving politicians, nongovernmental organizations, cultural figures, scholars, and journalists. I think it can be said that a new diplomatic space is being formed in the broad sense of encounters and exchange with different cultures. At this time, it is necessary for us to think once again about the concept of “cultural diplomacy.”

1. What Is Cultural Diplomacy?
On the basis of awareness of this problem of “what is cultural diplomacy?” the Council on the Promotion of Cultural Diplomacy was set up under Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi and submitted its final report in July 2005. This report recommended that Japan in the twenty-first century must become a pacifist state emphasizing cultural exchange. Of course, unlike economic power or military power, specifically measuring the results of cultural power is difficult. Moreover, the advance of such information technology as the Internet and e-mail has given rise to competition over the speed of information transmission, and there is a growing tendency to be satisfied with just one-way transmission that focuses superficially on the speed of information rather than accuracy and substance. What I would like to stress here is that if cultural exchange means an attempt to gain the understanding of other countries and peoples over time, then, with understanding in terms of politics and security, it is necessary also to have “slow information” cultivated by cultural power and education. In terms of diplomacy concerning economic and security matters as well, in my opinion, the ability to persuade other countries and international opinion will be increased if there is already mutual understanding through cultural exchange on an everyday level.

The final report of the Council on the Promotion of Cultural Diplomacy, of which I was a member, emphasized three things: first, the promotion of understanding about Japan and enhancement of Japan’s image; second, the cultivation of mutual understanding and trust between different cultures and civilizations in order to avoid conflicts; and third, contributions to the fostering of values and principles that are common to humankind. These three recommendations incorporate the positive statement that the economic power of Japan should also contribute as a pacifist state through cultural exchange.

On this point, the final report specifically cited two regions as priority areas for Japan’s cultural diplomacy. One is East Asia, the other is the Islamic Middle East. East Asia, centering on China and South Korea, is a region where the mutual understanding of historical awareness and sense of values with Japan is becoming increasingly important. And it is also a region where several differences in opinions regarding these matters can be seen today. The Islamic Middle East, meanwhile, is a very important region in terms of the fight against terrorism, energy security for Japan, and the dialogue among civilizations.

Just at this moment, as you are aware, the publication of cartoons of Prophet Muhammad, which began in Denmark and spread throughout Europe, has caused a massive reaction in the Islamic world from the Middle East to Asia. This incident has shown clearly that in this age of globalization, a localized event in Europe soon escalated into an international phenomenon and caused a backlash on a global scale. I would like now to state my personal view about this problem, which concerns my special field, and to talk about the importance of dialogue diplomacy and cultural exchange, which is today’s theme.

2. Meaning of the Cartoon Incident
First of all, to state the facts, the doctrine of Islam prohibits idol worship, and it is forbidden to depict Prophet Muhammad. This rule is shared by all ordinary Islamic citizens. Before anything else, I think that it is necessary for us to recognize this fact. Furthermore, the cartoons doubly enraged Islamic people because they portrayed Prophet Muhammad as the ringleader of terrorism and terrorists. In addition, what must be mentioned is the fact that this antipathy has been amplified by lingering memories of colonial rule. And we must also take note of the fact that in regions where Muslims constitute the majority, there are many states and societies where politics and religion are exceedingly close.

On the other hand, from the point of view of the people of Europe, where the separation of politics and religion has been realized, they have accepted Muslim immigrants but are dissatisfied because, although they have not only provided the immigrants with jobs and welfare to a considerable degree but also shown as much respect as possible for the traditional values of Islam, including daily lifestyles and ceremonies, the immigrants have not shared their values of freedom and respect for the individual and have only spotlighted problems on the negative side, such as discrimination and alienation. In addition, I think that the cartoons were carried in newspapers and so on from the perspective of the freedom of journalism and expression as a kind of symbolic criticism of the extremist elements who perpetrated the subway terrorist attacks in London last year. In a sense, it was perhaps a reflection of the irritation that exists in Europe.

Certainly freedom of expression is the basis of democracy stipulated by law, and it must be protected. And criticism of extremists who justify terrorist acts in the name of Islam is absolutely necessary. But I also believe that an important job of the media, which has responsibility for the freedom of expression, is to correct the prejudice that tends to quickly equate indiscriminate terrorism and criminal acts like the murder of hostages with the doctrine and thinking of Islam in general. Of course, this is an important job for scholars like myself as well. The freedom of expression and criticism does not mean the right to trample on the minds of other people with sound beliefs. The freedom of expression also entails responsibility, and, in my opinion, it does not have the right to hurt the peaceful religious feelings of ordinary people. Moreover, at present, with the creation of increasingly multiethnic and multireligious hybrid societies as a result of the enlargement of the European Union, respect for the rights and beliefs of the various people who constitute those societies, including Muslims, is surely one of the essential conditions for the success of integration.

The ancient Roman philosopher Cicero, who I like very much, wrote in his On Obligations that if it is the divine will that people should help one another for the sake of all, then people should fulfill their obligations centered on public interests and further strengthen the social bonds among them. I think that it is necessary for both sides to make compromises in accordance with this thinking. In an environment in which different religions and values coexist, even if you talk about freedom of expression, if you caricature another person’s faith, then naturally, as a matter of fact, you are going to increase the tension in society. Efforts are necessary to ensure the harmony and stability of society as a whole by giving consideration to the dignity of minority groups. This does not mean the “self-regulation” or “forced taboos” that are being talked about in some quarters in Europe. If you understand Japanese, or if you are Japanese, I think the word that we would use is tashinami [propriety].

Meanwhile, the extreme violence that has erupted in Lebanon and Syria, which has already come under criticism from Islamic intellectual leaders and sensible citizens, does nothing more than recklessly foster misunderstanding of the form of Islam and is totally unacceptable. In the background of this violence there are extremists who dislike the efforts of Islamic moderates toward coexistence and coprosperity with Europe and non-Muslims. I think the scheming of certain countries in the Middle East is lurking under the surface as well. In Europe, there is a long history of debate and study about liberty; names like John Stuart Mill and Isaiah Berlin immediately come to mind. If Muslims have any objection to the understanding of European people about liberty and rights, they should respond with reason and convey their opinions through debate. In other words, they should raise objections to the ideas of Mill and Berlin head-on.

Violence could lead to a justification of terrorism itself. Muslims should note the danger that the question of whether they support or oppose violent struggle could become a kind of loyalty test for them, like the pictures of Christian symbols that Japanese Christians were made to step on during the Edo period [1603–1868] in Japan. Now is the time for Islam to display its rationale as a peaceful religion, which is the pride of honest Muslim people. And I think that the Muslims who live in Europe are required to make efforts, too. It is necessary for them to fully understand the historical fact that, unlike societies in which Islam constitutes a majority, in Christian societies like Europe, where secularization has advanced, the European people themselves have sometimes reflected on their religion and criticized it.

In this respect, I believe that what is necessary is a dialogue among civilizations, which is one of our main themes today. The expansion of multifaceted cultural exchange and dialogue, which Japan has been advancing through the “Dialogue Among Civilizations” seminars, the Middle East Cultural Missions, and the Japan-Arab Dialogue Forum, are going to become increasingly necessary. In Europe and the Middle East at the moment, the Spanish and Turkish governments have put forward the excellent idea of an “alliance of civilizations.” I think it is important to push ahead with such notable efforts toward dialogue. Of course, the friction among cultures is a problem that we ourselves are now struggling with, and, needless to say, it is one that Japan and other countries in East Asia should tackle. The debate about textbooks is one issue. Now is the time for the EU and the Islamic world also to think fundamentally about this problem of historical understanding.

Mutual understanding, of course, requires perseverance. However, perseverance has been considered to be a part of belief in both Christianity and Islam. Indeed, Prophet Muhammad, who is in the headlines at the moment, himself said that among all the gifts bestowed on humans, nothing is more precious than perseverance [Hadith].

3. Cultural Exchange and Dialogue between Japan and the Middle East
Now I would like to talk a little bit more specifically about the problem from Japan’s position. That is to say, we are making attempts at cultural exchange and dialogue not at the governmental level but at the level of civil society. In recent years there have been the following efforts:

First Middle East Cultural Mission (September 2003)
Second Middle East Cultural Mission (September 9–18, 2004)
Third Middle East Cultural Mission (September 13–23, 2005)
First Central Asia Cultural Mission (October 22–29, 2004)
First Japan-Arab Dialogue Forum (September 4–5, 2003)
Second Japan-Arab Dialogue Forum (March 3–4, 2004)
Third Japan-Arab Dialogue Forum (January 8–9, 2005)
First Japan-Arab Intellectual Dialogue Agenda Setting
Meeting (March 28–29, 2005)
Second Japan-Arab Intellectual Dialogue Agenda Setting
Meeting (December 9–11, 2005)

Of course, there was also a lot of exchange before this at the civil-society level between Japan and the Middle East or Islamic world. But for me personally, these are the missions, forums, and agenda setting meetings since 2003 that I have especially been involved in in some responsible capacity.

The consistent line that we, or I, have taken in these missions, forums, and so on― he premise of our approach, if you like―is to convey Japan’s own tragic history, namely, the tragedy of World War II, which took the lives of 3.5 million Japanese themselves, and the historic tragedies of the immeasurable damage that Japan caused in neighboring countries, especially those in East Asia. By doing so, we show that self-assertion through violence and terrorism only leads to hatred and enmity. Also, rather than relating Japan’s experience since the Meiji Restoration as a success story, we talk frankly about the dark side that lurks behind prosperity. We caused the tragedy of the war and the pollution that occurred amid the postwar prosperity. The description of Japan’s own experience in this way has been one of our main approaches in promoting cultural exchange and dialogue.

I am a historian, so of course I endeavor to take a balanced view. That is to say, I have also mentioned the fact that historically Japan achieved an almost balanced modernization between the positive maintenance of traditional culture and the creative acceptance of culture and civilization from overseas. And I have stated that, as a result, the maintenance of curiosity in other cultures and a spirit of tolerance through history has been a fundamental factor in the building of today’s Japan. In other words, cultural exchange and cultural diplomacy are the exact opposites of violence and terrorism.

I would like again to emphasize the three principles of cultural exchange and cultural diplomacy that I think are especially important in relations with the Middle East. First, in addition to Japan’s culture and values, Japan should convey its own past experience frankly and positively to Middle Eastern countries. We must speak candidly about not only the positive side but also the negative side of our history. That is the first principle. Second, we must accept more people from the Middle East by promoting study in Japan and tourism and, through this, encourage people-to-people exchange even more enthusiastically. Third, and I think this point really is important, we must contribute to the promotion of dialogue for the coexistence of different cultures, civilizations, and religions with a spirit of respect for harmony and coexistence. For this purpose, in addition to the exchange between scholars and experts that we have seen so far, even more multitiered and multisided interchange and exchange are necessary. Thus, in our missions, forums, agenda setting meetings, and so on recently, we have endeavored to promote exchange consisting of not only scholars but a diverse range of people, including former diplomats, former bureaucrats, active journalists, and athletes.

To give a recent example, twice last year, in Cairo and Tokyo, meetings were held to discuss the issues between Japan and the Arab world that should be solved, or should be tackled. These meetings were held with the cooperation of the Yomiuri Shimbun and the Center for Political and Strategic Studies of the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram and the support of the Japan Foundation, and they went a considerable way toward identifying the themes. Participants included people from various professions from not only Egypt but also such Arab countries as Tunisia, Lebanon, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, Jordan, and Palestine. These meetings signify that the time has come not for the conventional form of exchange limited to only Middle Eastern and Islamic experts but to think about what specifically should be done in a multifaceted manner.

I believe that the basis of cultural exchange and mutual understanding starts with ordinary people seeing the other country as it really is, warts and all. Recently, in Turkey, cheap package tours to Southeast Asia have been introduced and have become popular. The number of Turkish people visiting Thailand and Malaysia is increasing, but unfortunately these package tours do not take in Japan. I wish that travel agencies in Japan would actively arrange such cheap package tours and encourage more people in the Middle East to visit Japan. It is important that the number of visitors from Middle Eastern countries increases and that ordinary people have more opportunity to directly see Japan. The most important key for mutual understanding is to accept tourists from the Middle East, let them see Japan, which is brimming with attractions, and at the same time give them an understanding of the reality that since World War II Japan, as a pacifist state, has rejected politics that pursues military superiority, the highest form of violence, and ideologies that glorify terrorism.

Relating to this point, I would like to mention the Self-Defense Force personnel who are stationed in Samawah, Iraq. The SDF has already achieved results in water supply and infrastructure building and has been praised for its efforts. I am sure that the SDF will be able to return home without a single casualty. As a complement to what I have been talking about today―cultural exchange, dialogue, and the principles of cultural diplomacy―I hope especially that you will appreciate these efforts as the outstanding results of postwar Japan’s pacifism.

Finally, I would like to end my talk by introducing to you one of Japan’s historical figures. That person is Shonan Yokoi [1809–69]. Yokoi was an unfortunate politician in that, after achieving success in the Meiji Restoration, he was assassinated immediately after that achievement. In a sense, Yokoi was the first person in modern Japanese history who advocated the idea of a “pacifist state of cultural exchange.” At the time of the Crimean War in Europe and the Second Opium War in China, Yokoi argued that Japan should not become a military power but, as the most benevolent and righteous nation in the world, should become a country that spreads the great cause of benevolence and righteousness throughout the world. Since the end of World War II Japan has made efforts to realize the kind of vision of the state that Yokoi had, but in practice it is confronting various problems. The Japanese people no doubt will endeavor to gain trust and support as a benevolent and righteous nation both domestically and internationally. I hope you understand that the cultural exchange and dialogue that I have been talking about today are ideas that are connected to this self-awareness of the Japanese people and Japan’s raison d’être as a pacifist state.


QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Q: First of all, I would like to express my deep appreciation for the efforts made by the Japanese government and the Japanese people to enhance the cultural exchanges with the Middle East and the Arab countries. For a long time I believed that the Japanese were latecomers to the Middle East in these cultural issues, but now, after these efforts, I have started to change my mind. Japan is trying very sincerely to catch up with the European countries and America. Professor Yamauchi, you have been a key player in these activities during the last few years, so I would like to ask you about your evaluation of the past three years since these activities started under your leadership. What do you think of the reactions from the Arab side? And how can these reactions be developed in a constructive way to achieve the targets of this cultural exchange? Also, I would like to know about the future plans for cultural exchange with Arab countries. Are there any projects for the near future?
A: The biggest characteristic of cultural exchange recently has been that people with an influence on the formation of public opinion and intellectual development who have not shown much interest until now in such Middle Eastern countries as Turkey and Iran have had an interest in the Middle East, and ideas have come to be transmitted from all quarters. For example, there has been participation by corporate executives, such as the honorary chairman of Nippon Keidanren [Japan Business Federation], as well as a former vice-minister from the central government and the chief priest of Todaiji, one of Japan’s most representative Buddhist temples. I think, first of all, this is one of the main results on the Japanese side.
Regarding the reactions on the Arab side, let me give a brief description of them. Among Arab countries especially, and of course Turkey and Iran are just the same, there are countries where women are unable to participate in social activities. In our cultural missions and dialogues this time, we set up a gathering for women only. Women members on the Japanese side, who included former Minister of Education Atsuko Toyama and the fashion designer Hanae Mori, who is a recipient of the Order of Cultural Merit, spoke about the social activities of Japanese women. I think that we were able to let the Arab women members know a lot about a side of Japan that they were not aware of before. These gatherings have been successful and highly evaluated.
Second, Japan for a long time has been thought of as an economic state. Japan certainly is a state centered on commerce and trade, but at the same time we have been able to give Arab people, from government leaders to ordinary citizens, the understanding, albeit to differing degrees, that Japan is also a cultural state. To cite the example of Saudi Arabia, the cultural missions and dialogue provided the opportunity for such people as Crown Prince Abdullah [now King Abdullah] and Riyadh Region Governor Prince Salman to have an interest in Japanese culture. I think this was a very important attempt to increase understanding of the Japanese in these countries in a multifaceted manner. In addition, we made eager efforts to gain the understanding of ordinary citizens by holding symposiums and shows. Previously young people from Arab countries who came to study in Japan, or people who came for training, were overwhelmingly centered on science and technology, but a recent characteristic has been a rise in the number of Arab students wanting to study Japanese culture or history and coming to Japan to acquire doctorates in the humanities. It is in consideration of such trends that we are promoting these cultural exchange and dialogue programs.
As for your last question, there are a lot of programs scheduled from now on, but let me mention just the missions and forums. When Prime Minister Koizumi visited Turkey in January of this year, I hear that he agreed with Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan on the dispatch of the Fourth Middle East Cultural Mission, so I think there is a strong possibility that this mission will be dispatched to the Middle East this year. Also, the Fourth Japan-Arab Dialogue Forum will be held in May. It has come round full circle and will be held in Tokyo again this time. So far three countries―Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Japan―have been official members of this forum, but it has been decided that representatives from Palestine and Iraq will participate as observers, so I hope that this dialogue forum will become even more substantial.

Q: What is your opinion on the victory of Hamas in the Palestinian parliamentary election in January? And what should be Japan’s position over the Palestinian issue following the victory of Hamas?
A: That’s a very important question. First of all, the fact that an organization like Hamas has been elected, in a sense, shows the democratization of Palestine and the existence in Palestine of a base that respects the majority opinion, and these trends were revealed in the electoral process. I think there are various ways of interpreting the results of the election, but as in Iraq, where the people were able to state nonuniform ideas and opinions through the electoral process, in Palestine as well, I think that the free expression of opinions in the election is a new and forward-looking step.
Second, so far, however, Hamas has not taken the position of recognizing the coexistence of two states, Palestine and Israel. Since the Oslo Accord international public opinion, including Japan, has formed diplomacy on the premise of the peaceful coexistence of Israel and Palestine. This is the majority opinion in Japan as well. Accordingly, I hope that Hamas will grow into a political organization that can implement pragmatic government by shedding its former character as a revolutionary party and a group that has at times used terrorism. I think that this view is probably shared by the vast majority of Japanese.
One important thing I should add here is that there will also be a general election in Israel at the end of March. At the present point in time, the current ruling party, Kadima, led by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, or rather Acting Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, is reported to have the lead. Until now Prime Minister Sharon has advocated the concept of an expanded Israel. But I think that more than anything else the high level of support for Kadima is a manifestation of the thinking that in practice it is Kadima that can promote the restoration of public order and security. In a similar vein, in Palestine the support for Hamas was not for its ideology of terrorism and rejection of Israel. Voters chose Hamas because they hoped that in practice it could maintain public order. In other words, this is perhaps wishful thinking on my part, but I would like to point out that the desire among voters to restore public order and somehow grasp an opportunity for prosperity is common in both Israel and Palestine.

Q: Many Arab presidents, kings, and high officials have been invited to Japan and have visited Japan as state guests, but to my knowledge no Japanese emperor has been to the Middle East even once. Is there any reason for that? And don’t you think that if the emperor visited the region, it would contribute more effectively to understanding of Japan, especially in the cultural field?
A: Personally speaking, I absolutely agree with you. However, while Emperor Showa and the present Emperor have not made visits in their capacity as emperor, the present Emperor did visit Middle Eastern countries when he was crown prince, though not all. Also, other members of the imperial family, including the present Crown Prince and Crown Princess, often make trips to the Middle East. And as far as I know, the present Emperor and Empress appear to have an extremely deep and strong interest in Islam and the Middle East.

* Given on March 3, 2006, at the Foreign Press Center/Japan. This paper is reserved for internal use; any reproduction or quotation is forbidden without prior permission from the FPC. 　

©FPC 2006